HCJ Seminar Paper - Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus - Ludwig Wittgenstein

• Modernism of the 20th Century is a major part of the Historical Context. Modernism was motivated by a dissatisfaction with older, linear forms of thinking, and an eagerness to find new, subversive ways of representing. Following this, interest in form rather that content became more apparent as people were focussed on how things were put together instead of what they were put together in order to say.


• The Tractatus can only be fully understood when looked at with the philosophy of Frege and Russell.


• Gottlob Frege (1848-1925) is credited as the founder of analytic philosophy. Frege set out to show that the truths of mathematics could all be derived from logic.


• Traditional logic would have analysed a sentence such as, ‘all horses are mammals’ by making the ‘horses’ the subject and the ‘mammals’ the predicate. Frege however, analysed the sentence into the horse being the object and the mammals being the concept. Therefore making all horses mammals.


• Frege argued that the meaning of sentences has everything to do with that person’s logical structure rather than what goes on in their mind.


• Both Frege and Russell state that there should be a hierarchy system for the laws of logic whereas Wittgenstein explains that everything should be given all at once so everything is known. They also speak about logic, however Wittgenstein states that logic should never be spoken about.
  
  In the introduction by Bertrand Russell, he says that the Tractatus Logico-philosophicus may not prove all the matters it deals with but it should be considered an important event in the philosophical world.
  The Tractatus deals with how traditional philosophy and traditional solutions arise out of ignorance of the principles of symbolism and the misuse of language.
  “In order to understand Mr. Wittgenstein’s book, it is necessary to realise what is the problem with which he is concerned.”
  In the part of his theory, which deals with symbolism, he is concerned with the conditions, which would have been fulfilled by a logical perfect language. The problem which belongs to psychology is where the things which occur in our minds when we use language with the intention of meaning it. The problem that belongs to epistemology is what the relation subsisting between words, thoughts or sentences, and that which they refer to or mean. There is a problem of using sentences to convey truth rather than falsehood. What relation must one fact (Sentence) have to another in order to be capable of being a symbol for that other?
  Wittgenstein is concerned with the conditions for accurate symbolism. I.e. symbolism in which a sentence ‘means’ something quite definite. In practise, language we use is always quite vague, so that what we assert is never quite precise.
  
  "The world is all that is the case" - 1
  Wittgenstein describes this as the world. There is no need to go into details of what the world consists of, as individual aspects are unimportant. Wittgenstein is more concerned with the facts that make the world. Facts are referred to as States of Affairs which are the most simple of things and which do not affect any other states of affairs in any way, therefore are only relevant in relation to itself. Every state of affair together results in the world. States of affairs are made up of objects so without the objects there would be no state of affair or ‘fact’. Although states of affairs do not effect any other states of affairs, they can only exist if there are objects which fall within the context of that fact, therefore nothing can exists solely on its own it can only exist in accordance to something else. This can all be referred to as the study of ontology. Ontology is where the nature of representation and the thoughts and language which represent, are similar with the nature of reality. It is all based on the thoughts of existence and reality.
  
  "What is the case, a fact, is the existence of atomic facts." - 2
  Wittgenstein states that an atomic fact is a combination of objects – (entities, things). Without the world atoms would not exist but the world is made up of atoms so without atoms the world would not exist. “The totality of existence atomic facts is the world.” – 2.04
  From the study of atoms we have been made aware of the facts behind them. These facts are stored in ‘logical space’ which is where they ultimately exist. The objects that exist in logical space do not have to pass the verification test or the falsification test the idea behind them must simply be possible in some way.
  “In logic, nothing is accidental” 2.012 - This suggests that objects which exist in logical space must pass the verification test and the falsification test because ‘ the possibility of that atomic fact must already be prejudged in the thing’.
  “The substance of the world can only determine a form and not any material properties. For these are first presented by the propositions – first formed by the configuration of the objects.” – 2.0231 Propositions are ideas presented as a picture of the fact it represents. Therefore a material property cannot be determined until it has been proposed and understood. “The picture presents the facts in logical space, the existence and non-existence of atomic facts.” 2.11 “The picture is a model of reality.” 2.12
  “The picture represents its object from without, therefore the picture represents its object rightly or falsely.” 2.173
  
  "The logical picture of the facts is the thought." - 3
  There are a number of things in the world, which either can or cannot be explained. The aspects, which cannot be explained at all through language, need an image or a picture to aid understanding. This picture needs to be logical and this picture will have to come from thought. If we are unsure of something and it has not been proven, it cannot be fact. The logical picture and the hope that it will become fact is held together by the power of thought. If something begins as a thought it has the capability to become fact, as we are able to create a logical picture to explain it. Something which could be easily explained is maths 2+2=4, whereas the colours of the rainbow would be difficult to explain through language as there is limited way to describe colours. “To present in language anything which ‘contradicts logic’ is as impossible as in geometry to present by it’s co-ordinates a figure which contradicts the laws of space; or to give the co-ordinates of a point which does not exist.” – 3.032 Our thoughts however will enable us to be able to create a logical picture and make this proposition into a fact – “What is thinkable is also possible” – 3.02.
  After writing the Tractatus, Wittgenstein was against logic, stating that it had no meaning and was simply a language game. To some extent I agree with him here as I see logic as a concept which in itself cannot be proven. However I understand logic and see many positive effects that come from it so in this view I do not agree with Wittgenstein. “We cannot think anything unlogical, for otherwise we should have to think unlogically.” – 3.03
  Something which is viewed as unlogical is seen almost as a crime. In order for anything to be possible it has to be logical, therefore anything unlogical is not worth anything.
  
  “Definitions are rules for the translation of one language into another. Every correct symbolism must be translatable into every other according to such rules. It is this which all have in common.” - 3.343
  Language is very important in relation to objects. In order to know what an object is you need to be able to describe it and you can only do this through the power use of language. Definitions have to be understood by everyone therefore suitable language has to be selected and applied and must be able to translate clearly into other languages. The definition therefore has to be logical.
  
  "The thought is the significant proposition." - 4
  “The totality of propositions is the language.” – 4.001 Language is very complex and even day-to-day speech can become difficult to comprehend as there can be many meanings to words. Speech becomes adjusted through generations and over time the Queen’s English has had ‘slang’ and more colloquial terms added to the vocabulary. The more the language changes the harder it is to understand. “What can be shown cannot be said” – 7.1212. This to me does not make sense because surely what can be depicted through pictures can explained through language and the picture enables the proposition to be translated into language.
  Philosophy is very difficult to understand due to the language choices, and it is said that theories or questions set out in philosophy are unable to be answered; it has to be clear that the theories do not make sense. “We cannot, therefore, answer questions of this kind at all, but only state their senselessness.” – 4.003 Wittgenstein also states that “The object of philosophy is the logical clarification of thought – philosophy is not a theory but an activity.” 4.112
  
  “The proposition is the picture of reality.” – 4.01
  Reality is what we see and live in, it is everything that we understand. Propositions are where thoughts create a picture of something it represents. Propositions are complicated therefore putting thoughts into a picture of reality, means it has to be clear, concise and logical. “A proposition is the description of a fact.” – 4.023 After looking at the proposition, the verification and falsification tests would seem to me irrelevant as we assume fact is therefore true and enough for us to trust. However “Propositions can be true or false only by being pictures of reality.” 4.06. They are only depictions of fact, so nothing is proven either way as to whether or not we can trust them. When determining the truth of a proposition we have to know what the conditions with which we know something is absolutely fact. The example Wittgenstein gives is the black spot on a white piece of paper. To know that something is black or white we have to know the conditions by which white is white and black is black. We must be able to determine the sense of the proposition by our conditions of knowledge on colour. A proposition without sense is nothing at all, it has to present a picture of reality which also has logic.
  
  “It is essential to propositions that they can communicate a new sense to us.” – 4.027 As they are a description of a fact, that fact needs to be something new to us so that the proposition has a purpose. The proposition needs to be linked with a State of affair, and have a connection with that in order to create a logical depiction of a fact. “In the proposition there must be exactly as many things distinguishable as there are in the states of affairs which it represents.” – 4.04. There has to be a clear connection with between the states of affairs and the proposition and they have to be very similar in order to create that logical picture.
  “The sense of a proposition is its agreement and disagreement with possibilities of existence and non-existence of an atomic fact.”- 4.21. The proposition has to agree with the existence of atomic facts in order for it to have sense. The sense of a proposition does not have to be determined though because the sense of that proposition becomes apparent through sharing the logical form with the reality it is said to be representing.
  
  "Propositions are truth-functions of elementary propositions." - 5
  In the same way as states of affairs have no effect and no connection with any other states of affairs, elementary propositions have no effect on each other either. “In no way can an inference be made from the existence from one state of affairs to another entirely different from it.” – 5.135. Also all elementary propositions are the description of the world. “The world is all that is the case.” Wittgenstein lays out what he calls ‘truth grounds’ which set out all the possibilities of elementary truth—functions. If truth ground are common to more than one truth-function, Wittgenstein states that the truth of that one proposition follows from the truth of many propositions, so the truth cannot come from just one truth-function if there are more than one sharing the same truth-grounds.
  Propositions which have no truth –arguments in common with another are known as independent propositions.
  All elementary proposition has to be either true or false, combining more than one elementary combination creates a number of probabilities. If a proposition is true with nothing creating any arguments against it, it is known as tautology, meaning it is always valid and it’s truth is unconditional. If a proposition is known to be false then it is referred to as a contradiction. Combining two propositions is called an operation. “The truth-functions of elementary propositions are results of operations which have the elementary-propositions as bases.” – 5.234 Wittgenstein says the operation does not characterise a form but only the difference between forms.
  Only one operation can be performed per two propositions, as the same relationship cannot be established twice. If this were to happen there would be two outcomes, which were identical and you cannot have two of the same propositions, they are all independent.
  “If there are logical primitive signs, a correct logic must make clear their position relative to one another and justify their existence. The construction of logic out of its primitive sign must become clear.” 5.45. Existence is a key component to anything, and for anything to exist, it’s existence has to be justified and everything about that sign, proposition or state of affairs must be shown and everyone has to be made aware of it. If logic does have any primitive ideas, they must be independent of one another. Independence is also another key aspect of existence.
  “Logic must take care of itself.” – 5.473. Logic is a powerful concept and does not need guidance, as it is how the world works and gives us means for understanding. Logic knows exactly what will work and what is possible for each situation.
  “The limits of my language means the limits of my world.” – 5.6. Language is a main aspect in anyone’s world therefore the amount of language someone is able to understand establishes the limits within their world. Language cannot be established without logical pictures and logical pictures would not be established without states of affairs, which together makes up the world.
  
  "The general form of a truth-function is [p, E, N,(E)]. This is the general form of a proposition." - 6 (Every proposition is created from a set of elementary propositions.)
  “The propositions of logical are tautologies.” – 6.1. This is to say that all propositions of logic are true unconditionally and nothing will ever alter that or try to disprove it. “The fact that the propositions of logic are tautologies shows the formal – logical – properties of language of the world.” – 6.12. Language cannot be disproved as it is logical and it is a means by which we can communicate other than though depictions of propositions.
  “All propositions of logic are of equal rank; there are not some, which are essentially primitive and others deduced from these.
  Every tautology itself shows that it is a tautology.” 6.127. So to disagree with Frege and Russell, there is no heirachy where propositions of logic are concerned, everything is equal.
  “Mathematics is a method of logic.” – 6.234. Mathematics is a method of logic because it is a tautology. Maths is true, 2+2=4 is fact and it is logical.
  “The world is independent of my will.” – 6.373. We all live independently, it is logic that determines the way in which we live however our we as individuals are able to make our own decisions and logic will never be able to force us to act in a way we do not wish to. Logic may be the sensible option but our own free will enables us to act against it.
  “Death is not an event of life. It is not lived through.” – 6.4311. The world cannot be changed by the will of the people or events, which occur, or not occur. Only the limits of the world can be changed and that is the effect death has on the world. It ‘ceases’ as Wittgenstein states. He goes on to say that having a sole that survives death is no help at all. Again, it will not alter the world.
  The right method of philosophy is to say nothing except what can be said. Anything other than this may not make sense and would alter the way in which the world works successfully.
  
  "Whereof one cannot speak, thereof one must be silent." - 7
  I took this to mean that if anyone who has not been educated with language attempts to use language in an alternative way than how it is used presently, this may result in them changing the ways in which propositions and facts have to be represented with logical pictures.