The Philosophical Views of Kant and Hegel

Kant was an 18th century German philosopher who was born in 1724 and died in 1804. Kant was the last influential philosopher of modern Europe in the sequence of the theory of knowledge during the enlightenment. He believed in democracy and had strong views regarding the Rights of Man which is clear when he states, "There can be nothing more dreadful that that the actions of a man should be subject to the will of another."

Kant's most important book is the 'Critique of Reason' which is written with the aim to prove that knowledge cannot always transcend experience however knowledge is in effect a priori and is not always taken from experience.


German idealism is similar to the Romanticism movement, and Kant was the founder of German Idealism. Characteristics of German Idealists are as follows:

- The critique of knowledge as a means of reaching philosophical conclusions is emphasized by Kant and accepted by his followers.
- There is an emphasis on mind as oppose to matter which in the end leads to the assertion that only mind exists.
- There is a passionate rejection of Utilitarian ethics (greatest good for the greatest number) in favour of systems which are held to be demonstrated by abstract philosophical arguments.
- They made innovations in theory, but they did so in the interests of religion.


Kant uses the term priori which means we have knowledge prior to experiencing things. Kant's theory states that if the mind can think only in terms of causality, then we can know prior to experiencing them that all objects we experience must either be a cause or an effect.


Kant made a distinction between these terms, 'analytic' and 'synthetic', and 'a priori' and 'empirical'. An 'analytic' proposition is one which the predicate is part of the subject, for example, 'a tall man is a man' or 'an equilateral triangle is a triangle'. However, all propositions that we know only through experience are 'synthetic'. 'Synthetic' means something is made up of several other things, so here take the example of a cake, in order to make a cake you need flour, eggs and sugar, which therefore demonstrates that the cake is synthetic. An 'empirical' proposition is one which we cannot know except by the help of sense-perception, either our own or someone else's who we trust. And lastly, 'a priori' proposition is one which is more likely to have a basis other than experience. Here Russell gave the example of a child learning arithmetic where they may use objects to illustrate numbers. So 2 marbles plus 2 marbles equals 4 marbles, however, when the concept is understood the marbles are no longer needed.

Kant established a question to prove that although the law on causality is not analytic, it is still known as a priori. He said, "How are synthetic judgements a priori possible?" Meaning how are unnatural judgements possible if you have knowledge based on something other than experience?

Kant's philosophy on space and time is that they are not concepts they are forms of intutition. With this he created 12 categories which are derived from the forms of the syllogism. All of the categories are possible and are all subjective like space and time.

Also within the 'Critique of Reason' Kant states there are only three proofs to the existence of God:
- The ontological proof which defines God as the most real being;
- The cosmological proof which means if anything exists then an absolutely necessary Being must exist;
- And the physicotheological proof which means the univers exhibits an order which is evidence of purpose.

The other philosopher we have been looking at was Hegel, 1770-1831.

Hegel concluded the movement in German philosophy which started with Kant.
Hegel saw that nothing is ultimately and completely real except the Whole. One of Hegel's famous statements is 'the real is rational and the rational is real'. An empiricist will view certain aspects to be facts when they are irrational.

Hegel's idea that the Whole is completely real leads him to state that the Whole is called the 'Absolute' which is spiritual.
He has a metaphysical outlook to which he distinguished himself to other men with two aspects; one is his emphasis on logic and the other is the triasic movement called the 'dialectic'.
Two examples are given to illustrate his dialectic methods:
- He assumes that the Absolute is Pure Being'. No qualities have been assigned to the Being so it is nothing.
- And this leads to assuming the Absolute is Becoming but nothing becomes from this.

Hegel has set out a process which is essential to the understanding of the result. He says it is impossible to reach the truth except by going through all the steps of the dialectic. Imagine knowledge as a triangle to which there are three aspects of gaining knowledge. This process begins with sense perception, whereby there is only awareness of the object.
Then through sceptical criticism of the sense, it becomes purely subjective. To conclude it reaches the stage of self-knowledge where the subject and the object are no longer distinct. It is said that the highest form of knowledge is self-conciousness and the Absolute must possess this quality.

Hegel also believed that nothing was wholly false and nothing that we know can be wholly true. The Absolute is thought thinking about itself.

He explains that you cannot distinguish between ethical sense and the logical sense as logical perfection consistss of being a 'perfect' whole without independent parts but united like a human body.

Another one of Hegel's strong beliefs is that there is no freedom without law, so wherever there is law there is freedom.

As Hegel was a German philosopher, he believed that the German spirit is the spirit of the new world. Many people may disagree with Hegel when he states that there is no real State in America, because a real State requires a division of classes into rich and poor. He then goes on to say that the State is the Divine Idea as it exists on earth.

'The State is the reality of the moral idea'. If the State existed only for the interests of individuals, an individual might or might not be a member of the State. It is said that the duty of a citizen is entirely confined to upholding the substantial individuality and independence and sovereignty of his own State.

Hegel's next statement was very interesting, as I think it may contrast other philosopher's beliefs. 'It is good to have wars from time to time, [because] war is the condition in which we take seriously the vanity of temporal goods and things.'

HCJ Blog - JS Mills & M Wollstonecraft

Mary Wollstonecraft was a British writer, philosopher and feminist. Her feminist views are likely to have steamed from her childhood, as she had an alcoholic father, and Mary had to protect her mother from her father, as well as looking after their household. She could not understand why her mother would not protect herself against her husband. This lead Wollstonecraft to believe that if women were educated like men they would be respected members of society also, instead of following a lifestyle which has been established by men.

Wollstonecraft had the same outlook as Locke, as she believed that everyone is born with a blank slate and with the right education, anyone can be intelligent and reasonable beings. In her book the ‘Vindication of the Rights of Women’ she states that women are naturally weak, which therefore illustrates that women can never be equivalent to men but with the right education they can be of similar status. She also explains that the constitutions of civil governments have put obstacles in the way to prevent the cultivation of the female understanding. In the Eighteenth Century, it was normality that women were inferior to men. ‘Men have the opportunity of exerting themselves with dignity and of rising by the exertions which really improve a rational creature – however the female sex are born with certain sexual privileges, but few will ever think of ways of acting beyond the call of duty to obtain the esteem of a small number of superior people.’ This is due to the lack of education as well as the lack of encouragement by society at this time.

Wollstonecraft says that women are similar to the rich in the sense that they are to be observed, to be attended to and to be taken notice of with sympathy is what they seek. However she also makes the comparison of women and the poor, stating that if you teach them to read and write and you take them out of the station assigned them by nature. John Stuart Mills was a philosopher who worked on liberty, justified freedom of the individual. It was Mills who introduced the first bill to give women the right to vote, as he thought it was only fair to give all citizens the right to vote.

Liberty meant the protection against tyranny of political rulers. Mills saw power as necessary however he did see it as dangerous as the rulers could use their power against their subjects. Mills stated that rulers needed to be identified with the people and that their interests and will should be the interests and will of the nation.

Mills believed that people in their private dealings should be free as long as no-one is being harmed. If someone is in fact being harmed then the state can interfere. Offence was down to opinion so only if you were provocative towards someone in order to get them to commit a violent act against another individual, could the state step in.

John Stuart Mills also explained that if 99% of people were in agreement the 1% should not be silence. He felt very strong about equality, as did Mary Wollstonecraft.

John Wilkes was our first liberalist. Liberalism is a political orientation that favours social progress by reform and by changing laws rather than by revolution. Wilkes wrote an ‘Essay on Women’ which was his most famous writings.

Local Council Meeting 18-02-2010 7:00pm

Attending a local council meeting wasn’t exactly thrilling, however I must admit I did not realise how formal it was going to be. I was expecting a couple of chairs in a room with one person leading the discussion, but when we bowed to the major my expectations changed.

The major stated that the main aim for the meeting last night was to establish the budget. To begin with 10 questions were answered by one of 10 councillors sat either side of the major, then if necessary other councillors were able ask further questions.

Question 5 asked, “What arrangements are being made to enable prospective tenants to view properties before they agree to the tenancy?” Councillor Coates said in response, “Our main priority is to ensure maintenance for the properties is upheld to a high standard.”

Question 10 asked, “Why has a house in Jesty Road, which has been on the market for over 18 months, been withdrawn from sale?” Councillor Coates said the sale of this property has been delayed due to advice from appointed agents and health and safety regulated works have been carried out to make this property safe. He said that this property had not been withdrawn from sale.

As the major said that the meeting could potentially go on until 11:00pm we decided to leave early and therefore missed the discussion about the budget. Overall I found it was an interesting experience.

Local Hero

Student has saved an 84-year-old man from a fire on Monday after seeing flames in the ground floor of his Chatham Road flat.

20-year-old Edward Herbert saw the flames at around 21:15 from the flat in Winchester on Monday when he took a ladder to get to the man who was in his bedroom at the time.

The student managed to get the man to the window so he could breathe but due to the smoke the man fainted twice.

A member from the ambulance crew then gave the man oxygen and assisted him down from the flat. The man is now in hospital after suffering from smoke inhalation but is not seriously harmed.

Edward said, "I just wanted to get him out" and added, "He fainted twice and I thought the worst".

When the fire service arrived it took one jet, two hose reels and four sets of breathing apparatus to end the fire and positive pressure ventilation fans were used in the property.

Edward also said, "I will definitely go to see him in hospital".

Search for fisherman has been called off

The search for a fisherman who went missing on the 1st December along the Dorset coast has been ended.

32-year-old Osman Sharif left Mudeford Quay on Tuesday, where his car remained, but he did not return home, so his family called the police at 11:05pm.

The fisherman's boat was found along the shore of Chewton Bunny in Hampshire, and an air, sea and shoreline search was put in place, however now the investigation has been passed to the Dorset Police.

Inspector Tracey Baker, of Dorset Police’s County Division said, “We will continue to work with the Maritime and Coastguard Agency and the requirement for further searches will be dependent on any further information we may receive concerning the missing man or his whereabouts.”

County Council launches campaign against driving under the influence

The Hampshire County Council is to launch a safety campaign from November 30th, to try to stop driving whilst under the influence of alcohol or drugs.

The Council will be using taxi’s in Hampshire areas such as, Gosport, Winchester, Basingstoke and Andover with the slogan “I’ll drink, you drive”, to help people act responsibly whilst on night’s out over the Christmas period.

People’s driving ability is affected by just one drink and any drugs, and driving after taking either of theses creates a risk for you and other road users, which was seen in the 15,935 people who were injured or killed in a drink driving incident in 2007 alone.

Being caught driving under the influence of drink has the same penalty as with drugs, which is a £5,000 fine and a ban from diving for a year.

The Council is also suggesting that people should consider how safe their prescribed medication is, asking the question, “Could your prescribed or over-the-counter medication impair your driving? Always ask the pharmacist.”

Councillor Kendal the Executive Member for Environment said:
“We want everyone to get home safely, Having just one drink or taking drugs will impair driving skills. Driving whilst under the influence of drink or drugs is extremely dangerous and could harm you and innocent road users.”

Sergeant John Dainton from Hampshire Constabulary Road Policing unit stated:
“We’’ be out patrolling the roads throughout Christmas and New Year as we do all year round. If you’re foolish enough to drive whilst under the influence, the chances are you will get caught.”

This campaign will be running for six weeks beginning the 30th November and the pharmacy bag campaign will be running until the end of December.

News Agenda - The Hampshire Chronicle & The Coast 106

To being with, the Hampshire Chronicle has been publishing newspapers since August 24th 1772. When first introduced, the newspaper reported national and international news, with headlines such as, ‘It would seem as if Bonaparte can never mention England without losing his temper’, ‘English Literature printed in Paris’, and ‘Arming the Country in case of Invasion’. This was until the London newspapers started to circulate around the country. Nowadays it focuses on local news within Winchester, but also publishes a newspaper, which deals with the current news in Southampton. It is owned by ‘Newsquest’ which is the second largest publisher of local and regional newspapers in the UK. The Hampshire Chronicle targets people over 65 who are within the ABC1 social class. The male and female demographic for this newspaper is 52 percent women and 48 percent men. It has become clear that the people targeted are likely to have a family and be homeowners due to the advertisements placed within the newspaper. Advertisements for oakwood flooring, funeral directors and hospitals are all included in this newspaper to appeal to the reader, as they will feel as though the adverts are being hand picked for them. The Hampshire Chronicle covers local stories, which occur within Winchester, such as ‘City Parking Charges up to Boost Park & Ride’. They have covered this story because it is an issue, which will directly affect the citizens of Winchester. Relating to the audience who have families are the stories covering local schools. Parents with children in the schools being challenged by the local government need to be kept informed of the progress the schools are making and the Hampshire Chronicle ensures this is achieved. The Hampshire Chronicle’s news agenda is less concerned with national matters and more focussed on local news within Hampshire County Council. They target the citizens of this county and report on matters which, will be of use to them.
The Coast 106 was previously Original 106 to which the previous license holders were CanWest and put Original 106 up for sale. After being put up for sale Original 106 was bought by Paul Smith. This then lead to the radio station becoming the Coast 106, which began broadcasting in October 2008 to the Southern region.
The target audience for the Coast 106 is both male and females over 44. The demographic for this is 50:50. The audience is also said to be of the ABC1 social class. A way in which this local radio station appeals to its audience is through its music choice as it plays adult classic and contemporary music. Another way the Coast 106 attracts its audience is through the advertisement used in between songs. These adverts are aimed at parents and householders as the products are, ‘Civ-active-fizz’, ‘Persil’ and ‘confused.com’. The motto of the Coast 106 is ‘More tracks, less chat’. People over 40 are less likely to be interested in contacting the radio station for competitions for example and are more interested in listening to the song choice of the station.
The Ofcom regulations for local radio stations states, ‘each station should have direct and accountable editorial responsibility for covering its licensed area’. Like the Hampshire Chronicle, the Coast is more concerned with local news rather than national news due to the nature of the station. A typical news bulletin during a weekday includes news regarding individuals within the broadcasting area, such as their achievements or traumas. It also includes events happening in the area, or news concerning local businesses etc. Although the Coast 106 is a local radio station, their website provides a table illustrating at what points within the day it covers local or national news. National news is covered between 7pm and 5am on weekdays, to which local news is covered during peak-times of the day. However, on weekends national news is covered more often than local news due to the decrease in audience at that time. After reading and listening to the Hampshire Chronicle and the Coast 106 I have noticed that they have very similar news agendas and audiences and I feel they both achieve their aims successfully.